This is the context that defines Polish-Ukrainian relations in the shadow of the Volhynia tragedy—brutal events from World War II that continue to be a source of contention between the two nations today.
So how do we explain this dispute to Western observers who see Poland as one of Ukraine’s most generous allies in the fight against Russia, yet also notice the tensions surrounding difficult chapters of history?
What was the Volhynia tragedy?
The Volhynia tragedy refers to the mass murders of the Polish population carried out between 1943 and 1945 by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA), whose goal was to create an independent Ukrainian state. Many local Ukrainians joined UPA militias.
At the time, Volhynia—now part of western Ukraine—as well as the neighbouring Lwów, Tarnopol and Stanisławów provinces (known as Eastern Galicia or Eastern Lesser Poland) were occupied by Nazi Germany. These regions, home to Poles, Ukrainians and other ethnic groups, had long-standing interethnic tensions.
As a result of the UPA’s actions, between 40,000 and 100,000 Poles lost their lives—an estimate difficult to determine precisely due to incomplete records. Victims were brutally murdered, and entire villages were burned.
However, these crimes were not one-sided. In retaliation, the Polish underground—mainly the Home Army (AK)—carried out reprisal attacks, killing an estimated 2,000–3,000 Ukrainians.
Although the disproportionate number of victims is undeniable, this tragedy remains deeply ingrained in the collective memory of both nations.
Why does the Volhynia tragedy still divide Poles and Ukrainians?
A key issue is how each country interprets these events.
For Poles, Volhynia represents genocide and ethnic cleansing that demand unequivocal condemnation, historical reckoning and remembrance of the victims. The Polish narrative highlights the suffering of innocent civilians.
For Ukrainians, the UPA—including its ideological leader Stepan Bandera—is primarily a symbol of the struggle for independence.
The Volhynia massacres are often framed within the broader context of war and Soviet and Nazi occupations. The UPA is honoured in Ukraine not for the atrocities in Volhynia but for its fight against the USSR and Nazi Germany.
This fundamental discord leads to ongoing disputes: Polish commemorations of victims in Ukraine face resistance, while Ukrainian UPA monuments in Poland remain controversial.
Both sides accuse each other of selective historical narratives and, at times, a lack of goodwill in confronting the full truth.
The issue of exhuming victims
One of the most sensitive aspects of the Volhynia debate is that thousands of victims remain in unmarked graves, awaiting proper burial.
In 1994, Poland and Ukraine signed an agreement on the protection of war memorials and burial sites, facilitating exhumations. Since then, several exhumation efforts have taken place, including in Ostrówki and Wola Ostrowiecka in Volhynia.
In 2011, Polish and Ukrainian archaeologists uncovered the remains of around 320 murdered Poles in five graves. In 2013, seventy-nine Polish victims were exhumed in Gaj, in the Kovel district of Volhynia.
However, in 2017, the Ukrainian Institute of National Remembrance (UINR) imposed a moratorium on Polish-led searches and exhumations of victims in Ukraine. This decision was in retaliation for the removal of an illegal UPA monument in Hruszowice, southeastern Poland.
The moratorium has since become a major point of contention, obstructing efforts to honour the victims of the Volhynia massacres.
The Monasterz monument controversy
One of the most divisive memorials, from Poland’s perspective, is the UPA monument on Mount Monasterz near the village of Werchrata in Poland's southeastern Podkarpacie region.
Erected in 1993 without proper authorisation, it commemorates UPA fighters who died in battle against Soviet forces in 1945. In 2000, the Polish Council for the Protection of Memory of Combat and Martyrdom legalised the monument.
Over the years, the site has been vandalised multiple times. In 2015, it was defaced with Polish national colours, and a plaque with UPA names was destroyed. Another act of vandalism occurred in 2020, prompting reactions from both Polish and Ukrainian authorities.
Ukraine called for the monument’s restoration, citing its historical significance. In response, in 2020, a new plaque was installed with a bilingual inscription: "Mass grave of Ukrainians who died fighting the Soviet NKVD in 1945." However, the names of the fallen were omitted, which did not satisfy the Ukrainian side.
Recent developments and outlook
A breakthrough came in 2024 when the Polish and Ukrainian governments reached an agreement to resume exhumation efforts. Ukrainian Foreign Minister Andriy Sybiha confirmed that Ukrainian law posed no obstacles to Polish-led searches and exhumations.
In January 2025, another significant step was taken. Following a meeting between Polish Prime Minister Donald Tusk and Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky, Ukraine formally approved the exhumation of Volhynia massacre victims.
Tusk announced that both nations had found "a common language and methods of joint action on the issue of the Volhynia massacre and other painful, dramatic aspects of our shared history."
Historical reckoning vs. political reality
Poland has been one of Ukraine’s most crucial allies in its defence against Russian aggression, providing military, humanitarian and political support. Millions of Ukrainian refugees have found shelter in Poland.
Western observers often view this solidarity as a sign of strong friendship, making the Volhynia dispute seem paradoxical.
For Poland, supporting Ukraine does not negate the need to seek historical justice. Many Poles believe their generosity deserves reciprocal recognition of past wrongs. The lack of Ukrainian acknowledgment of the Volhynia tragedy as genocide remains a sore point, raising questions about the authenticity of bilateral relations.
For many Ukrainians, Polish pressure on historical issues feels like an unnecessary distraction during an existential war. Some worry that such disputes could be exploited by Russia to weaken allied unity.
Ukraine maintains that its war effort should take precedence, with historical matters postponed for a more stable future.
Russia: The silent beneficiary
Regardless of Poland’s and Ukraine’s intentions, Russia actively fuels historical disputes to undermine their alliance.
Kremlin propaganda spreads narratives suggesting Polish territorial ambitions over western Ukraine or portrays Poland as exploiting Ukraine’s vulnerability. Conversely, it depicts Ukraine as an ungrateful partner.
These manipulations resonate among Western audiences unfamiliar with the nuances of Polish-Ukrainian history.
How can these divisions be overcome?
Education and dialogue are crucial to resolving historical tensions. Joint historical commissions, backed by international institutions, could help establish an objective account of events.
Commemorative projects that honour victims from both sides—rather than emphasising national grievances—could also foster reconciliation.
It is equally important to educate the West about the complex history of Eastern Europe. Politicians, journalists, and educators should strive to present history as a platform for dialogue, not a battleground for competing narratives.
Solidarity in the face of shared challenges
Despite historical tensions, Poland and Ukraine share a common enemy. Russian aggression threatens both nations, making their cooperation essential for regional security and democracy.
History should not be a tool for division, but a lesson in avoiding past mistakes.
At a time when alliances are being tested, Poles and Ukrainians must find a way to reconcile.
This will require empathy, compromise and the courage to confront uncomfortable truths. But only through mutual respect and understanding can both nations build a future that ensures stability—not just for themselves, but for all of Europe.
Sławomir Sieradzki
The author is a senior analyst at public broadcaster Polish Radio.